Managing People Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Europe Way to the Modern Age

Question: Talk about theEuropes Way to the Modern Age. Answer: Presentation Eighteenth century was set apart by a progress in thought and theory that was set apart by works of a few creators and scholars of that time. French writing contains different works of writers particularly in the hour of 1755, when Franois-Marie Arouet, Voltaire made Candide(Voltaire 2013). It was a motivation to a few chronicled occasions as Leibnizs Monadology, the 1755 Lisbon quake and the Seven Years War. The piece had been affected by 1755 Lisbon seismic tremor, trailed by tidal wave and fire at All Saints Day, as the creator himself had philosophical impact from these episodes. The book had been first distributed in 1959 by Voltaire and from that point it had been deciphered in English. The composing portrays a youngster Candide, who has a real existence in Edenic heaven and had been taught by Leibnizian good faith. His guide is Professor Pangloss had shown him ways of life of good faith, which was later changed by his commonsense hardships on the planet. The subject has a snid e note, yet it shapes a picaresque novel with comparative topic as Bilungsroman. The epic has different undertakings and incorporates a few authentic occasions. Candide has been portrayed as having issues with insidious which has been delineated rather hilariously. Through the novel religion, government, reasoning, armed forces, thinkers, scholars have been criticized. The tale contains mind boggling depiction of human conditions with its political dissidence and strict blasphemy(N. Cronk 2016). The paper is a clarification of a few characters of Candide as for their fit with the ethos of eighteenth century society as, Throughout his experiences, Candide is once in a while joined by his coach Pangloss, once in a while by his companion Martin, quite often by his hireling Cacambo. The paper clarifies for the idea that Candides character was affected by his goes with and rationalist. in spite of the fact that basically Candides nature and convictions were formed by his teacher yet late r they came to be impacted by certain normal events and his companion just as worker. The age wherein the novel was composed saw a change from the conventional hopefulness musings to an increasingly reasonable situated disposition. Confidence is God being an altruistic god was seeing to be steadily traveled into another structure out and out. Examination Voltaires epic Candide was a motivation and portrayal of his own advantages just as convictions. In spite of the fact that Voltaire had a philosophical twisted of psyche and his character Candide in his underlying stages reflects such however process, later sound changes was consolidated from encountering ceratin events, which had enormous effect on the creators mind. Candide was overwhelmingly roused by Leibnizs works as it a solid contemporary impact on the general public. In spite of the fact that Candide experienced a significant update post its distribution, a portion of its significant characters included have massive impact on the focal character(Butt 1974). Candide, the title character happens to be the aristocrat Thunder-ten-Tronckhs sisters ill-conceived child. Candide was portrayed in affection with Cungonde, who was the aristocrats girl. Teacher Pangloss held a situation as the illustrious instructor of the aristocrats court. He has been regularly considered as the best r ationalist of the Holy Roman Empire. Candides companion Martin happens to be a Dutch novice logician and Manichaean. He and Candide met in Suriname became companions and gone with him. Candides worker Cacambo is relative from a Spanish dad and a Peruvian mother. He had lived generally in Spain and Latin America. He was Candides hireling when he was in America. There were different characters in the novel as well(Regan 2012). Candide experiences various encounters over the span of the story and all through his excursion characters like, Pangloss, Cacambo and Martin goes with him(Mason 2011). These characters have some extraordinary effect on the life and psyche of the hero, Candide. Educator Pangloss speaks to the hopeful thoughts and reasoning of the eighteenth century and mirrors the possibility of Leibniz, who was one of the Enlightenment masterminds of the eighteenth century. In the novel, Pangloss advances that the world is the most excellent and the best spot to live in. Candide who significantly regards his tutor, Pangloss grows up with this thought. Pangloss is exceptionally hopeful which appears to be very ridiculous since he himself towards the finish of the novel portrays the way that he isn't exactly secure with the thoughts or the way of thinking that he recommends. Pangloss, in the novel is mocked for his exceptionally hopeful view even in the hour of most extreme threat and emergency. Candi des character is a sheer portrayal and impression of the eighteenth century ethos, which had confidence in gallantry with specific changes received in from down to earth encounters. Most works of the time delineates such a progress period and this work is renowned for being one of its kind(O'Neal 2011). The theodicy of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz has spread about positive thinking and regards God as a big-hearted god. All his noticeable works mirror his commendations with respect to God and different undertakings that he does. Introductory piece of Candides character was profoundly impacted by such considerations as were proliferated by his Professor. Be that as it may, the Professor and scholar couldn't clarify events, for example, seismic tremor or a tidal wave. In this manner, however Candides qualities just as points of view was affected by his educator, post these occurrences he began to dismiss the greater part of these speculations. It was during this time he met his companion and worker and his character took on a changed dimensional standpoint and reasoning. However, at first he was in fancy as he neglected to clarify and comprehend the idea of such alarming occurrences(N. e. Cronk 2016). Martin then again is a sensible character and is spoken to as a researcher in the novel(Weller 1993). Martin is demonstrated to be a cynical character in the novel and he acknowledges everything with a legitimate methodology. Martin can capably pass judgment on episodes and foresee about the future happenings. The character of Martin consummately spoofs the ethos of the eighteenth century society since he looks straight into the real factors and the issues of the contemporary, sitting above the philosophical parts of life(Summerfield 2010). Along these lines, Voltaire through his character Candide, dismissed Leibnizian good faith post encountering cataclysmic event. Pantagloss later got tainted and was infected, which was later restored by Jacques. Martin is a herald of eighteenth century which is delineated from convictions and doubts in demonstration of God. He is likewise a worry warts naturally which impacts Candide somewhat. Subsequently, Martins attributes is frequently felt am ong numerous in progress of that age. His portrayal is frequently condemned as being Voltaires perfect way of thinking. Cacambo, who went with Candide for more often than not is a legit character and accepts both in the idealistic and the skeptical perspective on life. He keeps Candides trust as he brings back Cunegonde. Despite the fact that he had no legitimate guide or rationalist and his learning involved predominantly his encounters. In this manner, he found and gained from life through his and his familys different life events(Royle 1964). He had impacted Candides character to a constrained degree in this manner proposing commonsense way to deal with issues and arrangements. Cacambo is a perfect portrayal of a blended philosophical ethos, as he had firm have faith in the positive thinking hypothesis alongside functional presentation that drove him to learn on close on numerous features of life. End The epic finishes up with Candides change of theory of life and character that excuses good faith absolutely learnt prior in his life. Henceforth from hypothesis and theory of hopefulness, he goes on to trusting in uncertain speculations. The hero hypothesis is acknowledged by Candide towards the consummation sections as he is extraordinarily impacted by specific characters near him. With a formal and efficient style a mysterious methodology has been embraced for closing which is constantly simple to receive. In this way, twisting ceaselessly from reasoning to a progressively commonsense methodology and standpoint has been frequently been condemned. The ethos of the eighteenth century is reflected in the way of thinking talk instead of valor. This stage tends to increasingly assorted issues that in compelling in the functional occasions as opposed to philosophical in nature. Along these lines, this novel is a forerunner of the talk age when good faith is gradually getting changed wit h a progressively assorted and material information on common sense. Character of the educator is a sign of the valor with philosophical contemplations and convictions. Though those of Cacambo speaks to past age with changes because of experience. Martin character is a sheer portrayal of the age. Candides character has been profoundly affected by gallantry first and afterward step by step combined into the eighteenth century ethos that delineates a blended custom and a various than philosophical methodology. Reference index Butt, John, ed. Candide: Or, Optimism. Vol. 14. Penguin, 1974. Cronk, Nicholas. Candide. Norton Critical Editions, 2016. Cronk, Nicholas, ed. Candide (Third International Edition). WW Norton Company. 2016. Artisan, Haydn. Candide, Voltaire-Haydn Mason (exposition date 1992).. 2011. O'Neal, John C. The dynamic poetics of disarray in the French Enlightenment. . University of Delaware, 2011. Regan, Shaun, ed. Perusing 1759: Literary Culture in mid-eighteenth-century Britain and France. Bucknell University Press, 2012. Royle, P. Eighteenth-Century French Rationalism And The Ethical Revolution.. Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory, 1964: 51-66. Summerfield, Giovanna, and Lisa Downward. New viewpoints on the European Bildungsroman. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010. Voltaire, Francois. Candide, or idealism. Penguin UK, 2013. Weller, Shane. Candide: a double language book. C

Christian Thoughts :: essays research papers

Some time in the past, or possibly in the relatively recent past, there was a clan in a dim, cold cave. The cavern tenants would cluster together and cry against the chill. Boisterous and long they cried. It was everything they did. It was all they knew to do. The sounds in the cavern were melancholy, however the individuals didn’t know it, for had never known life. Yet, at that point, at some point, they heard an alternate voice. â€Å"I have heard your cries,† it declared. â€Å"I have felt your chill and seen your haziness. I have come to help.† The cavern individuals developed calm. They had never heard this voice. Expectation sounded abnormal to their ears. â€Å"How would we be able to realize you have come to help?† â€Å"Trust me,† he replied. â€Å"I have what you need.† The cavern individuals looked through the obscurity at the figure of the outsider. He was stacking something, at that point stooping and stacking more. â€Å"What are you doing?† one cried, anxious. The outsider didn’t answer. â€Å"What are you making?† one yelled considerably stronger. Still no reaction. â€Å"Tell us!† requested a third. The guest stood and talked toward the voices. â€Å"I have what you need.† With that he went to the heap at his feet and lit it. Wood touched off, blazes emitted, and light filled the natural hollow. The cavern individuals dismissed in dread. â€Å"Put it out!† they cried. â€Å"It damages to see it.† â€Å"Light consistently harms before it helps,† he replied. â€Å"Step closer. The agony will soon pass.† â€Å"Not I,† proclaimed a voice. â€Å"Nor I,† concurred a second. â€Å"Only a numb-skull would hazard presenting his eyes to such light.† The outsider remained close to the fire. â€Å"Would you incline toward the dimness? OK lean toward the virus? Don’t counsel your feelings of dread. Make a stride of faith.† For quite a while nobody talked. The individuals floated in bunches covering their eyes. The firebuilder remained close to the fire. â€Å"It’s warm here,† he welcomed. â€Å"He’s right,† one from behind him reported. â€Å"It’s warmer.† The outsider turned and saw a figure gradually venturing toward the fire. â€Å"I can open my eyes now,† she declared. â€Å"I can see.† â€Å"Come closer,† welcomed the fire manufacturer. She did. She ventured into the ring of light. â€Å"It’s so warm!† She expanded her hands and murmured as her chill passed. â€Å"Come, everybody! Feel the warmth,† she welcomed. â€Å"Silence, woman!† cried one of the cavern occupants. â€Å"Dare you lead us into your habit? Leave us and take your light with you.† She went to the outsider. â€Å"Why won’t they come?

Right and Wrong Ethics Philosophy

Good and bad Ethics Philosophy In regular day to day existence, we are constantly confronted with the undertaking of deciding if certain activities are correct or wrong. Morals would thus be able to be characterized as a part of reasoning that tends to issues of ethical quality. Morals is additionally alluded to as good way of thinking. Moral way of thinking is the efficient investigation of the idea of profound quality (Furrow 1). Questions including such ideas as great and malevolent, good and bad, bad habit and uprightness are tended to in this orderly investigation. Such inquiries incorporate; what I should do in a specific circumstance? How I should live? Morals is a reasonable order in theory that endeavors to respond to some down to earth addresses that structure a premise of setting up the core values and estimations of an individual or society. Gensler (3) traces two significant parts of good way of thinking or morals in particular: Metaethics is the branch that endeavors to consider the nature and the system of good decisions. Inquiries to be tended to under this branch incorporate; what do great and should mean? Are there moral realities and how might we legitimize or judiciously safeguard convictions about set in stone? A metaethical perspective on ethical quality has two sections; one section is worried about the idea of good decisions which is frequently the meaning of good, the other part is about the approach for the most part laying out how to choose moral standards. Gensler (3) expresses that standardizing morals contemplates standards about how to live. It poses inquiries like; what are the essential standards of good and bad? What are the fundamental human rights? What's more, is fetus removal right or wrong? Standardizing morals is additionally arranged into two levels; regulating hypothesis which searches for the general good standards and applied regularizing morals which examines moral inquiries concerning explicit regions like premature birth, lying, willful extermination and surrogacy. Why study morals? The investigation of morals and all the more explicitly the advancement of major moral hypotheses can be followed back to the Ancient Greek way of thinking propounded by such rationalists as Aristotle and Socrates. In the cutting edge life, morals has caught the consideration of different rationalists in assorted fields who are advancing trying to address different inquiries that are raised by the contemporary good issues. In this manner a portion of the purposes behind considering morals incorporate; The investigation of morals develops our appearance on a definitive inquiries of life. This reflection encourages a person to get oneself better with respect to the standards of some relevant issues throughout everyday life. Gensler (4) contends that on the off chance that you have not grappled with some of lifes more profound inquiries, at that point you are not a knowledgeable individual. Morals empowers a person to be an all-adjusted individual throughout everyday life. The investigation of good way of thinking can assist us with thinking better about ethical quality. A few issues emerge particularly in the cutting edge world and people are confronted with extreme inquiries on the ethical premise of those issues, for example, premature birth. For example people receive various methodologies in managing the issue of premature birth, while the advocates keep up that the mother has the chief option to settle on choices concerning her body, the adversaries contend that the holiness of life ought to be kept up consistently and that the developing baby has a privilege to life which is a significant essential human right. Along these lines Gensler (4) expresses that ethical way of thinking or morals can improve our point of view, and make it increasingly intelligent and better idea out. Another significant explanation of considering morals or good way of thinking is to hone our general reasoning procedures. In theory we can learn huge scholarly abilities that control our thinking and thinking. Along these lines we can consistently reason out concerning basic or extreme inquiries, all things considered, while basically assessing the clashing perspective focuses and subsequently settle for choice that thinks about our qualities and standards as people. Morals is without a doubt an intriguing subject to contemplate. Morals incites some great or solid discussions with others, particularly if the at least two individuals normally have clashing perspective focuses on significant issues of life. These intriguing discussions invigorate and hone our reasoning and creative mind empowering individuals to reevaluate our view point giving space for adjust or improve our viewpoints in future occasions. History of morals The historical backdrop of morals can be followed to three times of musings as sketched out by Gensler et al (25) to be specific the antiquated, medieval and the advanced time of thought. Antiquated time of thought; savants who added to the improvement of morals in this period incorporate Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicureans and stoics. In the west, philosophical investigation into morals started with the people of yore Greeks. Greek ethicists asked into how an individual could utilize motivation to accomplish easy street however they didn't arrive at an accord about what easy street is and the idea of the down to earth reason that can arrive at it. Socrates and Plato were worried about act-situated morals which is fundamentally worried about what we do. Aristotle (384-322BC), an understudy of Plato, adjusted some of his Mentors hopeful and semi strict moral perspectives (Gensler et al 27). Aristotle is said to have dismissed Platos moral perspectives and along these lines built up the aretaic, or excellence morals. Gensler et al (27) contends that Aristotle recommended that uprightness morals is intrigued at last who we are in spite of our activities. Aristotle fur ther explained that temperance doesn't fall into place easily; an individual should be prepared or taught to be righteous. Temperance if of two sorts; Moral, which bargains to some degree with the unreasonable piece of the spirit and the scholarly person, which includes just the discerning piece of the spirit. Gensler et al (28) contends that the most elevated type of righteousness is found not in getting a charge out of companions yet in pondering truth. During the time of Epicureans and stoics, rationalists got worried about the items of common sense of managing the political and social precariousness since in 323 BC, Greece fell into a noteworthy decay prompting various fights for parts of the domain. Medieval time of thought: noticeable thinkers in this period incorporate St Augustine, St Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus and William of Ockham. The political and social unsteadiness in the antiquated time of thought proceeded into this period as the logicians got progressively intrigued into increasing a more profound understanding into this issue. This prompted the investigation of human activities by the scholars. Augustine recommended that human opportunity originated from the absence of causal impacts while Aquinas accepted that human opportunity originated from the interior consultation that causes our activities. Gensler et al (31) claims that Aquinas broke down activities on the premise not just of their adjustment to the regular law yet in addition of their particular highlights; the object of an activity characterizes the activity (conversing with an individual), the conditions consider the setting wherein the activity happens (in an auditorium during a talk), and the end is th e demonstrations reason (to ask the individual an inquiry about the talk). All these three parts of activity must be legitimate for the demonstration to be viewed as acceptable. Both Scotus and Ockham kept up that the issues of good judgment were settled at last not by reason yet by confidence. In this way Gensler et al ( 31) claims that their perspectives fortified a more grounded feeling of individual independence both in good and political issues. Henceforth the medieval view on morals was the confidence in the presence of God and that everlasting salvation ought to be the vital inspiration for the moral conduct. Present day time of thought: savants utilize the term current to mean the edification time frame which is roughly the seventeenth and eighteenth hundreds of years. Present day is appeared differently in relation to the contemporary that generally covers the most recent hundred years, the twentieth and the twenty-first hundreds of years. Thinkers who caused huge commitments in morals during this period to incorporate; Thomas Hobbes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill. Gensler et al (32) states that morals in the cutting edge age started with a development from the other-common center that ruled medieval morals. Despite the fact that these conspicuous logicians of the time didn't dismiss the presence of God, a medieval thought, they dismissed the view that people should admire God as a manual for their activities. They similarly contested the medieval thought that everlasting salvation ought to be the inspiration for moral conduct. To the cutting edge savants, the motivatio n behind morals isn't to educate people how best to adore God, in any case, rather, to show people how best to live respectively in this world (Gensler et al 32). Major moral speculations A portion of the major moral speculations that have impacted present day thinking in the United States incorporate; utilitarianism, Kantian morals and Aristotelian morals. Utilitarianism otherwise called the consequentialist hypothesis expresses that the outcomes of an activity of a given individual make an activity good or unethical. Henceforth, an activity that adds to valuable outcomes is viewed as right or good while an activity that outcomes in hurtful or ruinous results is unethical or wrong. Driver (3) asserts that the hypothesis holds that an activity or a law is correct if just it delivers the best result; just on the off chance that it achieves the best useful for the best number. To the advocates of this hypothesis, any activity is ethically supported to the degree that it augments gains and limits the expenses or damages. A portion of the logicians on the side of this hypothesis are Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Bentham, an eighteenth century logician typically compared satisfaction with joy along these lines a decent life and despondency with torment in this way a despondent life. Plant who was a nineteenth century rationalist, util ized his hypothesis of utilitarianism to scrutinize laws that he felt were futile and even unsafe to society, for example, womens testimonial (Driver 3). Thus unmistakably utilitarianism moral hypothesis keeps up that an activity is good or right when

How to Use Self Hypnosis for Stress Management

How to Use Self Hypnosis for Stress Management Stress Management Management Techniques Print How Self Hypnosis Can Help You Manage Stress By Elizabeth Scott, MS twitter Elizabeth Scott, MS, is a wellness coach specializing in stress management and quality of life, and the author of 8 Keys to Stress Management. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Scott, MS Updated on October 07, 2019 How Stress Impacts Your Health Overview Signs of Burnout Stress and Weight Gain Benefits of Exercise Stress Reduction Tips Self-Care Practices Mindful Living xia yuan / Getty Images Hypnosis is perhaps one of the least understood therapeutic tools in use. While most people think of hypnosis as a way to get somebody to bark like a dog at the snap of your fingers or take off their clothes when you say the word ‘stupendous’, hypnosis can be a valuable tool in helping people overcome fears, withstand pain, or improve their ability to manage stress in their lives. Contrary to popular belief, nobody can hypnotize you without your consent or awareness. You can, however, be hypnotized by a trained professional whom you trust, to more easily achieve goals you set for yourself. Even better, you can save time and money and learn to hypnotize yourself using your own voice or even just your thoughts, a practice known as self-hypnosis. How It Works Hypnosis can be used for stress management in two ways. First, you can use hypnosis to get into a deeply relaxed state, fighting tension and triggering your relaxation response. This will help to prevent health problems due to chronic stress. Next, hypnosis can also help you achieve various healthy lifestyle changes that can reduce the amount of stress you encounter in your life. For example, you can hypnotize yourself to stick to an exercise program, keep your home less cluttered, feel more confident setting boundaries with others, etc. You can use hypnosis to reduce the level of anxiety you feel when you encounter situations that normally trigger stress as well, such as intimidating social situations. In this same vein, you can also effectively use hypnosis to help overcome any negative habits you’ve been using to cope with stress, like smoking or compulsive eating. Whats Involved The process of hypnosis involves entering a trance, or a deeply relaxed, but focused state (like that of daydreaming or meditation), and making suggestions for your subconscious mind to accept. You can go to a trained professional for hypnotherapy, and they will talk you through it. Or, you can employ the use of books, videos, or even short articles to learn what’s involved, and achieve effective results at home. Benefits Hypnosis is an extremely versatile tool that can be used for everything from simple relaxation to pain management in childbirth. It’s easy to do, can be quite inexpensive, and the results are lasting. There are almost no potential negative side effects, and it can give multiple benefits at the same time.  Rarely, upsetting information can come up from your subconscious mind and can be discussed and processed in therapy.  Also, it is important to remember that   Drawbacks Hypnosis isn’t for everyone. Some people have trouble getting past their initial prejudices about the practice in general, and some have a more difficult time getting into the trance-like state required for hypnotic suggestions to become deeply embedded. Others find that they simply can’t find the time or the focus, and have an easier time with other stress-management techniques. How Self-Hypnosis Compares to Other Stress Reduction Methods Like meditation, hypnosis does require more focus and practice than techniques like simple exercise or the use of medications and herbal treatments, and hypnosis also requires some training or the help of a trained professional. However, hypnosis may be a preferable option for those with physical limitations that make exercise like yoga more difficult. There are few (if any) potential negative side effects, like with some medications or herbal remedies. Also, a few other techniques can offer such a wide variety of benefits. With training and practice, virtually anyone can use hypnosis to some degree of success and experience the many benefits this technique has to offer.  This is an often-overlooked but wonderfully effective route to stress relief.

Comparison of health care services - 825 Words

Comparison of health care services (Essay Sample) Content: Comparison of Health Care ServicesYour nameName of ProfessorSchool affiliationDateHealthcare systems of the United States, San Marino and ItalyThe United States of America, San Marino and Italy have some of the best healthcare systems in the world. This is established straight from the way they are funded, coverage and provision of medical services. Nonetheless, a close study of these healthcare systems show significant differences, differences which hinder or facilitate their development.United StatesSan MarinoItalyFundingThe major body that funds the United States Health care system is the federal government. However, there are several providers of health care and these have other sources of funding; for example, Medicare, which is under the public health Insurance gets funding from federal income taxes, pay roll tax which is gotten from employees and employers, (Garson, 2013).The state offers mandatory funding. Employers and employees also contribute regular ly from their salaries, (Europe Cities, 2013).Funding of Health Care is mixed. There is health care that is funded from out-of-pocket spending. This is majorly through private care (France et al. 2005).There is funding also from regional business tax. In addition to that, there is also funding gotten from revenues gotten from VATs; that is, value added tax.AdministeredThe United Health Care System is divided into two; the public health insurance and the private health insurance. Each of these is further subdivided like Medicare and Medicaid. For the public health insurance, the health systems are administered by the government e.g. Medicare. For the private health insurances, they are administered by private companies, for example, Aetna Cigna.San Marino government health institute is the one that presides over the health care service in San Marino, (Europe Cities, 2013).There is provision of health care by both the private and public sectors. The public sector is provided by the national health service referred to Servizio Sanitario Nazionale (France et al. 2005). This is courtesy of the Ministry of Health. These services are spread out on a regional basis.Covered/Not CoveredThe systems has programs that cover people according to their ages, for example, Medicare covers people who are aged 65 and above and also those that are disabled while Medicaid covers people of low income and also the disabled.All Sammarinese citizens are covered.The Italian National Health System offers health services for all Europeans.Among those covered are services of tests, hospitalization surgeries, pediatric medical assistance and medications, et al.Freedom of ChoiceMany people do not have a freedom of choice because they are locked in their jobs because they have the fear that they will lose coverage. This is attributed to the insurance system which is based on the employer and this restricts a persons choice of insurance.Considering that all citizens are covered and all of them are entitled to equal health care services, freedom of choices is pretty much taken care of.Considering that all Europeans are covered, there is freedom of choice. The only requirement is for those going to Italy; they have to acquire health insurance, otherwise, it will not be possible for one to get a permit of stay.Percentage of Population InsuredUninsuredThese statistics go by years. In 2003, 62% of Americans who were not elderly got private insurance which was sponsored by the employer. 5% bought the insurance individually while 15% enrolled in insurance programs provided by the public like Medicaid, (Chua, 2006). 18% of the people were not insured.There are about 30000 people in San Marino and all of them are covered.In estimation, there is 15% of the population gets health insurance from the private sector as a complement.Overall Health of the Population (excellent, good, fair)The overall health is good. The rates of mortality in infants have fallen; smoking among adults has also fallen from 33.5% in 1980 to 17.5% in 2003, (Chua, 2006).Excellent.Excellent. This is attributed to the fact that it ranked as the second best in terms of health care services by the WHO health care ranking in 2000.Li...

Human Resource Business - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 25 Words: 7625 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? MBA Literature review The Relevance of Innovative Human Resource Programs to Facilitate Global Expansion of Multinational Companies (MNCs) from the UK. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Human Resource Business" essay for you Create order 2. Introduction The activities of multinational companies (MNCs) are at the heart of Britains internationally open and global economy. This global economy has emerged as companies all over the world are joining forces through alliances, mergers, joint ventures, acquisitions, and the like, thus creating the need for a constant mobile workforce and the HRM strategies to support and develop it. This would therefore imply a fundamental shift in the role of human resources from transaction and administration to strategy and business transformation through innovative programmes which supports the global strategy of the company. This section gives an overview of the literature review and the theoretical basis for the forthcoming chapters. The chapter consists of journals, books and research materials which throw more light into Innovative Human Resource Programs to Facilitate Global Expansion of Multinational Companies (MNCs) from the UK. The following were the primary information sources used for the literature review; ACM Digital Library Pro-Quest Direct EBSCO Publishing Gale Group Info Track OCLC First-Search Java Sun Microsystems Library IEEE Library Emerald Database 2.1 Evolution from Personnel Management to HRM According to Guest (1987), the origins of the traditional concept of personnel management can be traced to the post World War One welfare tradition of concern for the basic needs of employees. The developing and mature phases of personnel management from the 1940s to the 1970s saw an increase in the status and professionalism accorded to the personnel function, particularly in relation to industrial relations (IR) matters (see Sparrow 2004). The concept of HRM, as a new strategic approach to the management of people, evolved in the early 1980s (Ericksen 2005). Its evolution was influenced by a range of factors, including increased competitive pressures caused by deregulation and globalisation, and the influence of notable academics in the US and the UK (Ericksen, 2005). Although it has been suggested that HRM may be no more than old style personnel management with a new name (Gunnigle and Flood, 1990), Storey (1992) identifies four features of HRM which distinguish it from traditional personnel management: it is explicitly linked with corporate strategy; it seeks to obtain the commitment of employees rather than their compliance; employee commitment is obtained through an integrated approach to human resource policies (for example, reward, appraisal, selection, training); and unlike personnel management, which is primarily the domain of specialists, HRM is owned by line managers as a means of fostering integration. 2.1.1 Approaches to Human Resource Management 2.1.1.1 Hard Approach If an organisation focuses on control of resources and achievement of strategy, it may adopt a hard approach to HRM (see Storey, 1989) in which employees are viewed as a resource to be managed like any other factor of production. In this approach, the critical task for management is to align the formal structure and HR systems of the organisation so that they drive the strategic objectives of the organisation. This approach is exemplified in the strategic model of HRM developed by Fombrun et al (1984). It has been argued however that an over-emphasis on hard HRM ignores the potential resistance of workers and trade unions, factors which cannot be ignored if business strategy is to succeed (see Hendry, 1995). 2.1.1.2 Soft Approach In contrast, an organisation may place an emphasis on a soft approach to HRM (Storey, 1992 p. 30), in which employees are viewed as a valuable asset whose commitment will assist in achieving organisational success. The objective for organisations in such an approach is to integrate HR policies with the strategic planning process, to gain the willing commitment of employees, to achieve flexibility through avoidance of rigid bureaucratic structures and to improve quality (see Guest, 1987). The most well known soft model of HRM is known as the Harvard Model of HRM (Beer et al 1984), views business strategy as just one situational factor which influences managements approach to HRM. This model identifies a range of other situational factors which influence HR policy choices, including prevailing management philosophy, laws and societal values. In the context of this study, this model is significant in that it identifies a range of stakeholder interests (including unions, government and m anagement) which influence HR policy choices. It is argued that unless HR policies are influenced by key stakeholders, the enterprise will fail to meet the needs of these stakeholders, and ultimately its own objectives (see Beer et al 1984). 2.1.1.3 Ideal Type Model: Integrated links from Personnel to HRM Storey (1992) outlines a further model which illustrates the process involved in shifting from traditional personnel management to HRM. While this is an ideal type model, it comprises features which are significant for this study. For example, it stresses the need for integrated links between beliefs, assumptions, management issues and key elements of HRM. It also identifies key levers of change in the various elements of HRM, including recruitment and selection, training and development and conditions of employment. A strategic approach to HRM can be developed by creating effective policies in these areas (Storey 1992) 2.1.2 The integrative aspects of HRM A key theme running through many of the models is integration, which according to Guest (1987) lies at the heart of HRM. He identifies integration at three levels: integration of HRM policies with business strategy; integration of a set of complementary HRM policies; integration of HRM into the line management function. 2.1.3 The Role of Management According to Storey (1992), best practice indicates that the extent to which the transition process from traditional personnel functions to strategic HRM functions can be achieved will be influenced significantly by the belief and support of senior management in the added value that HRM can contribute to the organisation. More importantly, this belief must be visibly demonstrated, for example by committing additional resources to the development of HR strategy and the building up of HR skills levels. As a first step, the head of HR should be afforded a genuine role in the formulation of key business decisions. This contribution must be an integral part of the business strategy formulation process, so that HR issues are accorded a key priority as opposed to simply being added on to, or indeed excluded from, the core business of the organisation. On an ongoing basis, heads of HR should also be enabled to have a genuine input into decisions taken at top management level which have impli cations for HR. Clearly, if the head of HR is to be enabled to play a genuine role in ensuring that HRM issues become a top management priority, it is important that the professionalism accorded to HR, for example through the development of expertise in integrating HR and business strategies, begins at this level. 2.2 Definitions: Innovative HR Programmes According to Agarwala (2003), defines innovative human resource programmes of a company can be described as: Any intentional introduction or change of HRM program, policy, practice or system designed to influence or adapt employee the skills, behaviours, and interactions of employees and have the potential to provide both the foundation for strategy formulation and the means of strategy implementation that is perceived to be new and creates current capabilities and competencies (Agarwala, 2003). 2.2.1 Innovative HR Programmes According to James (2002), innovative programmes can be grouped into a set of new initiatives which are associated with the process of developing a strategic approach to HRMenhancing its competitiveness. A few of these include: Reducing costs through shared services centres, self-service, and outsourcing. Develop uniform HR processes recognising local regulatory requirements to help foster a low-cost, administrative delivery model. Create a self-service culture for employees and managers. Establish global employee shared services centres focused on delivering HR administrative support to multiple geographic areas, thereby reducing administrative overhead. Outsource key services that can be more efficiently managed and administered externally. Streamlining technology and information management Improve information access to help companies more efficiently manage their human capital assets, provide employees and managers with enhanced access to information, improve HR reporting, and address growing compliance requirements. Reduce HR technology operating costs by consolidating multiple technologies, technical infrastructure, and IT skills. Managing people globally Help enable the company to respond to the interdependencies of global markets by managing human assets globally rather than nationally or regionally thereby improving competitiveness in the international marketplace. Enabling HR to shift its focus from administration to strategy Remove the administrative component of the work of business HR professionals, enabling them to provide more value-added services and to focus on consultative and analytical interactions with line managers. Facilitate HRs transition to a strategic partnership with the company by upgrading talent and skills within the HR function. 2.3 Background: Human Resource Evolution According to Cooke (2003), first Generation HR Transformation represented a fundamental shift in HRs role, from transactions and administration to strategy and business transformation. First Generation HR Transformation focused on changing the existing relationship between employees, managers, and HR, (Randall 2006). With technology as a key enabler and process re-engineering playing a pivotal role, this First Generation effort sought to help make employees more self-sufficient, whilst asking them to take more responsibility for their own careers (Datta et al 2005). It also sought to help remove HR from the middle of the employee/manager relationship by making managers more responsible for handling their employees HR needs. Over the past ten years, HR Transformation has led to a major restructuring of HR operations and processes transforming the way HR services are delivered Cooke (2003). 2.4 UK MNCs: Achieving Global Expansion MNCs in the United Kingdom have long been well established in manufacturing, but in recent years they have emerged as dominant players in the private service sector and have even become involved in the provision of public services (Edwards 2004). Levels of both inward and outward investment are high: foreign direct investment (FDI) into the UK by companies based overseas accounts for almost 9% of the total global stock while UK-based companies investments overseas account for over 14% of the global stock (Edwards 2004). In both instances, the UK is second only to the worlds largest economy, the United States. As a result MNCs are significant employers in Britain; for example, 18% of the workforce in the production sector are employed by overseas-owned companies with many more being employed in the domestic operations of British-owned multinationals (Edwards 2004). For multinational companies in the UK to achieve a successful transition in their drive for global expansion and competitive advantage, multinational companies would require innovative HR programmes which would enable them to anticipate critical workforce trends, shaping and executing business strategy, identifying and addressing people-related risks and regulations, enhancing workforce performance and productivity, and offering new HR services to help a company improve and grow (Edwards et al 2007). 2.5 HR Practices: Effectiveness A number of authors have explored the links between individual HR practices and corporate financial performance. For example, Lam and White (1998) reported that firms HR orientations (measured by the effective recruitment of employees, above average compensation, and extensive training and development) were related to return on assets, growth in sales, and growth in stock values. Using a sample of banks, Richard and Johnson (2001) examined the impact of strategic HRM effectiveness (ratings of how effectively a variety of HR practices were performed) on a number of performance variables. They found that strategic HRM effectiveness was directly related to employee turnover and the relationship between this measure and return on equity was stronger among banks with higher capital intensity (greater investments in branches). In this thesis, HRM would be described in the context of a number of innovative practices which have been proven to enable MNCs manage the transition process in thei r drive for global expansion, thus enabling organizational effectiveness and better performance outcomes. Wright and McMahan (1992) defined innovative human resource programmes as practices and activities employed to enable an organization achieve its goals. These practices are seen as a departure from the traditional HR activities. Delery and Doty (1996) asserts that these practices are key drivers required by MNCs to respond with the right strategy as they expand their operations in different environments (Boselie et al, 2005). 2.6 Empirical Research: Human Resource Factors MNC Global Expansion The drive for global expansion by UK MNCs has necessitated the need for a human resource strategy that would ensure that the company is able to sustain its workforce. This has therefore led to the departure from the traditional HR administrative role to a more robust global HR function which takes cognisance of employee profile, the work and environment demographics, de-skilling, re-skilling and multi-skilling and issues related to outsourcing and synergy of its processes vis--vis work-force reduction Lam and White (1998). The largest survey of employment practice of multinational companies (MNCs) in the UK was carried out by Edwards et al (2007). The key findings from the first large-scale, representative survey of employment practice in MNCs which have operations in the UK. The survey is comprehensive in its coverage of all but the smallest international companies. The findings derive from interviews with senior HR executives in each of 302 multinationals operating in Britain, both overseas- and UK-owned. The findings from the research suggest a connection between human resource practices and the performance of firms, a summary include the following HR programmes stated below. 2.6.1 Innovative HR Practice: Compensation Payment 85% of the firms surveyed were found to have a robust innovative program in terms of compensation and payment. This is achieved through a performance appraisal programme such as upward/peer appraisal and forced distribution. 72% of the MNCs utilized an innovative scheme for managers, through individual output criteria which were supplemented by a range of other criteria including behaviour in relation to desired competencies and to corporate values. 2.6.2 Innovative HR Practice: Training Development Programmes In respect of adoption of high potential innovative training programmes among MNCs, the organisations were asked if both their UK and overseas operations had a management development programme specifically aimed at developing its high potentials or senior management and employee potential. The data show that high potential programmes are adopted by 70% of organisations; 30% of organisations are not using them. Organisations were asked whether they used a global high potential programme that was adopted elsewhere worldwide, or a local, nationally specific programme. Most organisations indicated that their programmes are global in scope. 2.6.3 Innovative HR Practice: Appraisal Activities In comparison of performance appraisal practices and management values, the formal performance appraisal schemes for all three groups are very widespread; over nine out of ten firms have them for key group and managers, and over 80% have them for large occupational groups. Only 3% of firms have no formal appraisals at all. Just over a fifth of firms use forced distributions for the results of appraisal. A clear majority of firms use the results of appraisal as the basis of decisions on redundancy and redeployment. 2.6.4 Innovative HR Practice: Employee Involvement Communication UK-based multinationals most commonly cite setting a broad policy HR programme as being significant or very significant (62% and 66% for training and development and for employee involvement policy respectively). HR advice and consultancy is also relatively prominent for training and development policy (53% significant or very significant), but less so for employee involvement policy (33%). For training and development, and employee involvement, policy, the respective proportions reporting the other means of influence as significant or very significant are: setting detailed HR policies (32% and 31%); monitoring HR policy implementation (39% and 34%); and HR benchmarking and information exchange (42% and 28%). 2.6.5 Innovative HR Practice: Global Knowledge Sharing Diffusion In respect of innovative HR programmes which promote employee knowledge, learning and diffusion, international employee learning mechanisms are used extensively across all MNC both within the UK and across overseas operations. The survey focused on five formal organisational learning mechanisms used by managers that are international in their scope: International projects groups or task forces, which are often used to address specific issues; International formal committees; Secondments involving the placing of MNC employees in external organisations such as suppliers, customers, universities or private RD companies; Expatriate assignments The evidence showed that the most common organisational learning mechanism adopted among the managerial community within MNCs is the informal network (used by 84% of companies). International project groups/task forces also play a prominent role (used by 73% of organisations) and to a lesser degree expatriate assignments (used by 60% of organisations) and international formal committees (53% of organisations). In contrast, secondments are only adopted by around a quarter of the organisations (26%). The majority (82%) of organisations use two or more organisational learning mechanisms, with 53% adopting between three and four of the five organisational learning mechanisms among their managerial community. Around 9% fail to use any of the mechanisms listed. MNCs requiring integration between the UK operations and other sites worldwide are significantly more likely to adopt multiple organisational learning mechanisms (Tregaskis, Glover and Ferner, 2005). However, these national variatio ns show that the form that organisational learning and diffusion take is strongly shaped by the national context of the parent firm. 2.6.6 Innovative HR Practice: UK MNCs Use of Shared Services According to Edwards et al (2007), the findings from the study found that half of the UK MNCs operate shared services centres and have international HR policy formation bodies. They are far less likely, compared to US and other European MNCs, to have a worldwide approach to workforce management. UK firms consistently aim to pay a greater proportion of employees (managers, LOG and key group) in the top or 2nd quartile. Nine in ten UK firm have performance appraisal for their managers while seven in ten have formal appraisals for their LOG (Edwards et al 2007). Use of forced distribution is uncommon as is the use of 360-degree feedback. An overwhelming majority of UK MNCs tend to recognise trade unions for collective bargaining purposes. Formally designed teams and problem-solving groups are commonly found in UK MNCs as are a large number of communication mechanisms with meetings between line managers and employees, newsletters/emails and systematic use of the management chain the most commonly found communication mechanisms. Although the majority of UK MNCs have succession planning and formal management development programmes these tend to be comparatively less than other MNCs. 2.6.7 Use of Expatriates According to Edwards et al 2007, UK MNCs make considerably greater use of parent country expatriates than third country expatriates. This may reflect the short geographical proximity and cultural similarity between the UK and Ireland. UK MNCs tend to have considerable discretion over the various HR policy areas, much more than US firms. 2.6.8 IT Based Networks Services A key development in HR service provision over the past two decades has been the increased use of information technology (IT) (Edwards et al 2007). This is all the more relevant in MNCs, where IT systems may be used to monitor policy implementation and performance, and also to facilitate communications and networking, across borders. It thus provides an insight on the extent to which corporate management has access to HR data on its international operations and can compare performance on HR metrics across sites and countries. Specifically examined was the usage of IT based HR information systems (HRIS) and shared services provision on an international level. In regard to the diffusion of HRIS, respondents were asked whether the worldwide company had an HR Information System (such as PeopleSoft or SAP HR) that holds data relating to the firms international workforce. The responses for both foreign and UK-owned MNCs showed that just over half (54 per cent) of all MNCs in the UK reported the use of HRIS that operates on an international basis. This is a similar to a study by Collings et al (2007), that found in the parallel UK study, where some 52 per cent used such a system (Edwards et al., 2007). However, among MNCs in the UK, a greater proportion of foreign-owned MNCs (56 percent) than UK-owned MNCs (44 per cent) reported the use of HRIS on an international basis (Edwards et al 2007). There were some discernable differences in regard to ownership. As indicated from the study, American firms were the highest users of HRIS (70 per cent), while the rest of the world MNCs is the least likely. This again resonates with the UK findings where US MNCs were among the greatest users of HRIS and Japanese MNCs the lowest (Edwards et al, 2007). The impact of sector on the take-up of HRIS will be fully outlined and placed in the appendix in the forthcoming chapters. Among UK MNCs, the service sector accounted for the greatest number of firms with HRIS. However, among foreign-owned MNCs multi-sector firms were by far the largest users, followed by those in the service. 2.7 Previous Research: Human Resource Factors Previous studies have been utilized in exploring the current human resource innovative programmes that UK MNCs must take into account in their drive for global expansion. One of the main limitations of this review is that it is limited within the context of UK MNCs as there was the lack of evidence to determine the effects of these practices on MNCs operating in the context of both emerging and non-emerging economies. This is in consonance with Ericksen and Dyer (2005) and Wright et als., (2005), both of who also called for further empirical research from different contexts. Gerhart (2005) substantiate the question, to what extent are these innovative HR programmes valid for other context by saying: This is a concern because it seems unlikely that one set of HR practices will work equally well no matter what context. To shed more light on the issue and to further examine the relevance and effects of such programmes, it is important to conduct research in non-US / UK context, (Katou Budhwar, 2007), especially in emerging economies. 2.8 HR Factors for Global Expansion: Effectiveness Previous research has explored the links between individual HR practices and corporate overall performance. For example, Lam and White (1998) reported that firms HR innovative programmes which are largely measured by the effective recruitment of employees, compensation programme, and extensive training and development were related to return on assets, growth in sales, and growth in stock values. Using a sample of manufacturing companies, multinational servicing companies and global financial institutions, Richard and Johnson (2001) examined the impact of strategic HRM effectiveness (ratings of how effectively a variety of HR practices were performed) on a number of performance variables. The findings suggested that implementation of innovative HR programmes had an effect on employee turnover and the overall performance of the company. 2.8.1 Recruitment Selection According to Terpstra and Rozelles (1993), who compared the relationship between recruiting / selection practices among US / UK MNCs and the firms performance, it was found that there was a strong connection in the companys performance between implementation of the new HR practices and the previous traditional practices, this was focused mainly on recruiting, selection and the use of formal selection procedures and firm performance. Cascio (1991) also states that the improved performances recorded after implementation of such new HR practices are generally substantial. 2.8.2 Employment Training Programmes Russel, Terborg and Powers (1985) in a survey of 30 US MNCs establish a link between the adoption of employment training programs and financial performance. The use of performance appraisals (Borman, 1991) and linking such appraisals with compensation has strongly been connected with the performance of a firm. (Gerhart Milkovich, 1990). Koch and McGrath (1996) reported that firms using more sophisticated staffing practices (planning, recruiting, and selection) had higher labour productivity. 2.8.3 Communication Employee Involvement Huselid (1995) reported that HR practices can influence firm performance through provision of organization structures that support involvement among employees and provides flexibility for improvement of job performance. Green et al (2006) states from findings of a survey that organizations that vertically aligned and horizontally integrated core human resource functions and practices performed better and produced more committed and satisfied HR function employees who exhibited improved individual and organizational performance. 2.8.4 Other Models Most of the work on innovative human resource programmes and the companys performance has been undertaken in the context of MNCs who consider the US and the UK as their home country. The question which arises, though, is whether the UK and US-oriented models are appropriate and representative in other contexts (see debate in special issue of the International Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(7), 2001). Other studies analyzed such as Harel and Tzafrir (1999) found that in parts of Asia and the middle-east, innovative HR practices were related to perceived organizational and market performance. Bae and Lawler (2000) did find a significant relationship between HR practices and firm performance in their sample of 140 manufacturing firms in Asia, covering china, Japan and South Korea. Lee and Miller (1999) also found a strong relationship between HR practices and performance among a number of MNCs in Asia, but it is clearly stated that this relationship was most strongly pronounce d among firms using dedicated positioning (marketing differentiation or innovative differentiation) strategies. Bae et al., (2003) in their study of HR strategy in Pacific Rim countries found that the evidence of a strong relationship was however based on strict high-performance work system with a number of variable conditions. Morishima (1998) found support for the contingency perspective in a sample of Japanese companies. Firms with well-integrated high-involvement work practices and firms with well-integrated practices consistent with more traditional Japanese employment strategies both did better than firms with poorly integrated practices. Bae et al (2003) in their investigation of Hong Kong multinational companies found an increase in the firms performance due to certain core innovative HR work practices (training and compensation techniques) with high involvement characteristics. 2.9 Implementation Whilst there are currently limited researches in respect of implementation of innovative HR programs in the context of UK MNCs, however, according to Briscoe and Schuler (2004), Implementation may vary in respect of what and how, thus limiting the value of comparative survey research. Chew and Horowitz (2004) states that the subject of implementation should only be considered in the context of the specific MNC or firm involved, as there are lots of contextual factors and limitations in implementation hence the need to be cautious and dissuade any hasty conclusions when taking on findings from research journals on implementation. Horowitz (2004) states that primary research on implementation would need to focus on contingency approaches and mediating variables affecting the MNC level application. A number of theoretical approaches would also add to the importance of context frameworks such as integration/divergence or universalism versus local particularism, and ethnocentric, geocentr ic, regiocentric and polycentric managerial strategies (Chew et al 2004). The author believes that such an extensive approach would not only examine the relationship between human resource innovative practices and relevance, but would take into account the host environment. 2.9.1 Implementation Expansion: Formation of HR Strategies According to Briscoe et al (2004), very little work has been done on the formation of methods for implementing and controlling the transition from specific administration HR services unto innovative programmes that are directly linked to strategic challenges such as increasing revenue through new market entry or mergers and acquisitions. The formation of the UK MNCs corporate strategy has to take into account the balance between those activities that need to be centralized or standardized and the degree of flexibility required by the affiliate to operate in the host country Brock (2005). The formation of HR strategies is distinguishable by variance in terms of level of abstraction and scope. The level of abstraction refers to the level at which the HR strategy is focused. According to Combs et al. (2006), there are different levels of abstraction in the design of a global HR system. Levels vary from recommendations, policy, to operational-level procedures. With a policy-level of abstraction, affiliates are given the freedom to implement their own HR strategies within the broad parameters of the standardized policies. However, with an operational level of abstraction, affiliates are expected to implement a more detailed HR management practice. Scope refers to the extent of HR management practices dealt with in the HR strategy. For example, the HR strategy may have a narrow scope and focus on two or three key areas, or it may have a wide scope and deal with the more comprehensive list of practices such as those described in the contingency perspective by Tregaskis et a l (2005). 2.9.2 Research Evidence Utilizing the findings from the research of 302 MNCs operating in the UK by (Edwards et al 2007) and the framework for subsidiaries by Cooke (2003), it was found that the determination of the appropriate formation model is largely dependent on four variables which include: The business model The impact of national culture on the business model The role of the MNCs organizational culture in directing and controlling affiliates The degree of convergence 2.9.3 Implementation Expansion: Business Model According to Cooke (2003), the business model largely drives corporate HR strategy and there is a need for congruence and alignment of HR management practices and business strategy. The increased complexity of MNCs is the result of MNCs pursuing value-creating opportunities that become available when firms have a global presence (Guest, 2003), but the increased complexity requires the appropriate organizational architecture, of which HR is a critical component. A most useful way of explaining MNCS business models is the eclectic paradigm (Randall, 2006). In terms of the paradigm, MNCs are advised to invest across national borders because of an interplay between a firms ownership-specific advantages (Firm Specific Advantages), the location attractiveness of countries or regions, and advantages gained from internalizing cross-border operations within the MNCS; the so called OLI approach (Cooke, 2003). The first factor, Ownership, refers to the MNCs specific competencies and an understa nding of how they develop, the second, Location, relates to an appreciation of the transferability of a firms competencies between markets, while the third factor, Internalization, deals with the alternative modes of market entry in a competitive context. The choice of location is influenced by a combination of FSAs (firm specific advantage) and country-specific factors, such as the availability of natural resources, access to markets, or assets that complement the FSA (Ferner et al, 2005). These respective approaches are referred to as Resource Seeking Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Market Seeking FDI and Strategic Asset Seeking FDI (Cooke, 2003). 2.9.4 Implementation Expansion: Influences on Destination According to Harris et al, (2001), resource and market seeking activities were the primary drivers of FDI since the 1970s but this trend has reversed as the value of services and intangible assets increase. This has led to MNCs seeking more knowledge-based assets in the form of intellectual capital or low-cost skilled labour, which in turn favours destinations with knowledge intensive assets or learning advantages away from those with purely natural resources. In all four cases, the firms are primarily exporting knowledge intensive FSAs that will either give them access to new markets or support their existing FSAs (Harris et al 2001). By implication, it can be expected that the role of social capital, and consequently HR, plays a more significant role in strategic asset seeking MNCS business models than resource seeking or purely market seeking business models (Chew, 2004).This is consistent with the findings of Agarwala (2003), who found that MNCS business models are evolving into differentiated businesses that are characterized by a global dispersion of operations, interdependence and tight coupling of subunits, and an emphasis on cross-subsidiary learning and structural flexibility. Agarwala (2003), in his study of two giant pharmaceutical firms, found varying evidence of this trend towards a common model and a greater complexity was developing within firms which was characterized by a growing internal differentiation in internal structures of MNCs. This is also discussed by McDonnell (2007) who refer to firms with a high level of internal differentiation as differentiated network MNCs and these firms are characterized by a high level of transfer of knowledge, both location and non-location based, in multiple directions. McDonnell (2007) show that different approaches to managing subsidiaries arise from the varying needs of subsidiaries for access to different bundles of knowledge, these may be location bound (e.g. local market responsiveness) or non-location bound (LB and NLB knowledge bundles). In addition, the movement of the bundles may be unidirectional from parent to affiliate, or multi-directional affiliate to parent or from networks of subsidiaries. 2.9.5 Implementation Expansion: The Effects of Culture The impact of national culture on the operations of an MNCS is experienced most strongly in its HR management practices. National culture impacts on the implementation of corporate HR strategy as personal motivations, the way that information is synthesized, and economic utilities are culture bound (Hofstede, 1991). Yeniyurt et al (2003) show that national culture provides an important role in limiting the depth and acceptance of universal management practices across an MNCS. The significance of national culture on moderating HRM practices was explored by Ferner et al. (2005), who examined the differences between management practices in MNCs and their operations in host countries and found in their study of German MNCs operating in Britain and Spain. They discovered that although there are pressures on MNCs to adopt US-style business practices such as standardized international policies on appraisal, performance management and so on, that the influence of the German business system p ersists. This view was a challenge to a study by Collings et al. (2007), who examined what types of changes, would be introduced to British companies when taken over by foreign companies. In particular, the study tried to identify whether there were nationally distinct approaches to management following the acquisitions. The study found that the process of acquisition was rapidly followed by significant changes in management practice but that some practices were common to all companies while others conformed to accepted characterizations of national management practice. The national conformation was clear in the case of Japanese and US acquirers, but less so for French and German firms. 2.9.6 Implementation Expansion: HR strategy, Managerial Beliefs and culture Countering the role of national culture and local conditions is organizational culture; a strong organizational culture unites employees in their actions which, in turn, influence performance (Schein, 1992). Organizational culture is often seen as an instrument to maintain unity and control between parent and affiliate, and can play a role in moderating the freedom of the affiliate to change and adapt its HR strategy from the corporate HR strategy. (Collings et al, 2007) found that substantial differences in management role expectations exist both across and inside MNCs, which suggests that differences result from more than national cultures and may indicate the role of organizational culture. Schein (1992) explore the relationship between organizational culture, strategy and performance. It was found that there is a positive relationship between culture and performance and that strategy is influenced by culture, which in turn, influences and develops the corporate culture. It then follows that it is in the interest of organizations to establish and build an organizational culture that provides both a competitive advantage and a distinctive identity. Easterby-Smith et al. (2002) distinguish between internal work culture and external culture. Internal work culture is similar to organizational culture and is construed as a pattern of shared managerial beliefs and assumptions that directly influence HR practices. These beliefs and assumptions in turn relate to both the task and employees. Managerial assumptions about the task relate to the nature of the task and how it should be performed, while those assumptions relating to employees relate to the nature and behaviour of emp loyees. 2.9.7 Transfer of Culture: The Role of Expatriates According to Scullion et al (2006), managerial assumptions of task and employees are influenced, in turn, by institutional level culture and societal-level culture. The transfer of organizational culture is often done through the use of expatriates. Expatriates from the MNCs parent country are used in managing the interests of the organization and transferring its competencies, systems and even aspects of its organizational culture to its subsidiaries in foreign locations. This is referred to as an ethnocentric approach, as opposed to a polycentric approach where affiliates are staffed by host country nationals, or a geocentric approach which staffs affiliates and subsidiaries with staff from a third country (Scullion et al, 2006). For MNCs, organizational culture fulfils an additional role in that it determines the method of exercising control or influence over the affiliates and the cross-MNCS implementation of corporate HR strategy. In an organization with an organic culture (Bhattacharya et al, 2005); formal control systems are likely to cause dissonance while the same is true for an organization with a mechanistic culture not utilizing formal processes. 2.9.8 Implementation Expansion: Issues of convergence Convergence, also known as isomorphism, is the process whereby MNCs will gravitate towards a series of universal management practices that provide competitive benefits for themselves (Cullen, 2002). The drivers of convergence at organizational level are efficiency, growth, and the development and utilization of technology. Convergence can be regarded as continuous organizational learning and the development and application of practices that lead to organizational efficiency, but are still flexible enough to be applied generally (Huselid, 2005). It follows that convergence is also occurring in the adoption of international HR practices; with increased complexity facing MNCs, there has been less emphasis on formal structure and a greater focus on HR management policies and practices, which form an integral part of the process-input control systems of modern MNCs. This has led to an upsurge in the search for global best practices or HR strategies that can be applied across all cultures (Briscoe et al, 2004). The contingent view of HR strategy in MNCs emphasizes that there is one best method, even within contingent variables such as stage of internal corporate evolution (Marginson et al, 2004). Typical of the contingent view is that of Tregakis et al (2005) who investigated the standardization of Western practices in Chinese-Western joint ventures. The study showed that overall HRM practices had become similar to those in Western MNCs, especially when compared with data gathered in 1992. This was seen as due to the spread of Western ideals in the Chinese business network, the greater emphasis that Western MNCs were placing on HR management, and the limited liberalization of Chinese employment legislation. It was noted that few Western companies had made the total transfer of HRM policies to China; this was not due to national cultural differences but local conditions. Edwards (2004) came to a similar general view, although in a different context when he compared HRM practices in European firms in six divergent countries. Edwards (2004) found that although there were differences in management practices across these firms, that this was more likely due to the role of legal and political structures in the various countries than cognitive orientation. Most firms wanted to adopt the latest management practices prescribed in American literature and supported by business consulting firms across Europe, but could not because of varying regulative and political conditions. Some evidence is emerging that there exists a hybrid between divergence and convergence (Lei et al, 2005). This is defined as cross-vergence, which refers to cross-cultural diffusion of high performance work practices (HPWPs). The motivation for adopting HPWPs includes the need for efficiency, productivity, and high quality goods and services but these are tempered by contextual factors present in the host country. Cross-vergence provides an integrative alternative to the convergence/divergence debate and accommodates diversity, at both country level and within-country level. Cross-vergence also implies reverse diffusion. 2.9.9 Discussion Additional factors that would influence the expansion and formation of MNCS HR strategies are institutional and cognitive factors. Institutional factors include regulatory factors in the home country that would impact on the translation of corporate HR strategy by an affiliate in a host country, (Wright et al, 2005). Wright et al (2005) points out that a countrys institutional framework and its cognitive sets impede or enhance the application of HR practices such as performance appraisals. Ferner et al, (2005) in a study of 249 US affiliates of foreign-based MNCs found that in general, affiliate HRM practices closely resemble practices of local (US) firms. Where differences do exist, these are influenced by method of founding, dependence on local inputs, the presence of expatriates and the extent of communication with the parent. These findings were further elabourated by Combs et al (2006) who found that the affiliates dependence on host institutions would be reduced when a subsidia ry (or affiliate) is highly dependent on the parent to provide crucial resources and when the parent was likely to exert influence through formal coordination mechanisms. 3. Practices 3.1 Approaches to Domestic Environment According to Collings et al (2007), in the context of HR and global expansion, one influential category of factors that has been highlighted from previous research when is the issue of the domestic environment, often referred to as the host country effect, with attention being paid to the influence of such variables as local culture, and legal, social, economic, and political systems (Perkins et al, 2006). Researchers additionally suggest that the greater the cultural distance between the home and the host country, the harder it will be for the multinational to transfer home country philosophies and practices (Ferner et al, 2005). That is, while the multinationals are pursuing global expansion and integration, they are forced to be responsive to the demands in each area in the countries and regions within which they operate (Guest, 2003). With this in mind, it is therefore imperative for UK MNCs to put in place HRM practices that are consistent with national development plans of their intending host countries, (Tregakis et al, 2005). In several European countries, particularly Germany and Austria, workforce representation in the company, legal rights of consultation and co-management in specific areas are of prime importance. Conversely, in Britain there is no obligation to recognise unions or establish structures of employee representation with the result that MNCs from more regulated economies have the option to set up subsidiaries without any workforce representation. 3.2 Approaches to Employees According to Cooke (2003), the current practices among UK MNCs leans more to a polycentric approach than a regiocentric staffing approach. Whichever approach is eventually chosen, the next issue that would come to mind would be effective recruitment and selection issues. There are three types of employees to be considered which are; employees from the parent company / home country who will be known as expatriates, employees from the host country and other employees who are neither from the home or host countries. According to Ferner (1997), the type of government policies and the nature of legal and labour market conditions in the host countries, plays a key role in influencing the strategies and policies of the MNCs by either encouraging or impeding certain industrial relations practices. For example, in a developing country, a host government may dictate hiring procedures, as in the case of Malaysia in the 1970s when the government made it mandatory for all foreign firms to provide additional employment for the indigenous Malays (Chew et al., 2004) and with the current policies in Saudi Arabia and the Philippines where indigenous employment quotas of 75 and 95 per cent have been imposed respectively. The three types of employees mentioned must be incorporated into the HR strategy of the UK MNC, despite their advantages and disadvantages. Integrating these employees into the companys system and getting them to function across functional lines efficiently can be a challenge and daunting task and according to Ferner (1997), the first stage in the process is to establish the culture within the MNC and how this can be propagated within the global operations. 3.3 Innovative Programmes Edgar et als (2005) meta-analysis of 104 articles found that training and development, contingent pay and reward schemes, performance management (including appraisal) and careful recruitment and selection were the top-four HRM practice-level categories used by different researchers. These are seen to reflect the main objectives of most conceptualisations of a strategic HRM programme (Batt, 2000: 587) namely, to identify and recruit strong performers, provide them with the abilities and confidence to work effectively, monitor their progress towards the required performance targets, and reward them well for meeting or exceeding them 4. Conclusion 4.1 Discussion Following an extensive literature survey and taking into account the proposed definition of innovative HRM practices, this study considered the relevance and effectiveness of a few of those practices which include: expatriate and redeployment policies, recruitment policies, compensation and reward, training and retraining policies, performance management and appraisal. Edgar et als (2005) meta-analysis of 104 articles found that training and retraining, compensation and reward, performance management (including appraisal) and careful recruitment and selection were the top-four HR practice-level categories used by different researchers. These are seen to reflect the main objectives of most theories of innovative strategic HRM programmes (Batt, 2002). The activities would involve: identification and recruitment of employees who are performing and capable of performing, provide them with the abilities and confidence to work effectively, monitor their progress towards the required perfor mance targets, and reward them well for meeting or exceeding them. 4.2 Key Evaluation Factors I have utilized the relevant literature to investigate and discuss the main issues relevant to innovative human resources practices organizations need to consider as they embark on global expansion. The researchers have given a number of factors and dimensions to the topic which I would utilize in my survey. The key relevant factors gathered from the literature reviewed which I would use for the proposed survey include; Innovative HR Practices: Recruitment Policies Innovative HR Practices: Compensation and reward Innovative HR Practices: Training and retraining policies Innovative HR Practices: Performance appraisal Innovative HR Practices: Expatriate and redeployment policies 4.3 Justification for Choice of Factors I have chosen these factors as my framework for further analysis because they have been cited by more than ten authors as the main drivers of human resource management on a global scale. In addition, with these assertions going as far back as seven years and yet still very relevant today that therefore gives an indication of its acceptability. 4.4 Review Although these brief findings may constitute a bit of basis to state the importance and relevance of innovative human resource programmes for UK MNCs, however there is the need for this to be backed up with additional robust and quantitative evidence to support the findings. This is in consonance with Edwards et al, (2007), and Wright et al., (2005) who have called for a wider investigation in different contexts. In light of this, in this thesis, I would hope to substantiate this evidence by carrying out a survey on a UK multinational company as discussed in the next chapter.